Snakins isolated from Solanum tuberosumare cysteine-rich peptides roughly 6.9 kDA in size and the snakins isolated from potato tubers is effective at suppressing both fungal and bacterial growth at concentrations lower than 10 μM. Transgenic potato plants overexpressing the StSN1 gene exhibited reduced symptoms of R. solani infections and higher survival rates compared to the wild type plants . Additionally, StSN1 has been shown to be effective in vitro against B. cinerea and several Fusarium species.However, snakins have been rarely expressed successfully from microbial hosts, often with low yield and insolubility, which hinders in-depth mechanistic characterization of its action towards pathogenic fungi . Another promising group of AFPs are the puroindolines, which are small, amphipathic tryptophan-rich proteins about 13 kDA in size and found only in wheat . They are known to inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria and fungi with low mammalian toxicity, likely through strong binding with microbial membranes and therefore perturbing the membrane integrity. These proteins are believed to protect seeds from fungal attacks during seed development and germination. There are two major puroindolines, Puroindoline A and B. When the pin genes are over expressed in transgenic rice, rice displayed significantly enhanced resistance to rice blast caused by Magnaporthe grisea and a reduction in symptoms due to Rhizoctonia solani infections . Purified PINA and PINB proteins from wheat were able to inhibit the growth of a variety of pathogenic fungi, including Alternaria brassicola, Ascochyta pisi, F. culmorum, F. graminearum, Magnaporthe girsea, R. solani, and Verticillium dahlia. PINA and PINB are stable over a broad range of temperature and pH. PINs have been heterologously produced in Pichia pastoris with a titer up to 14 mg/L taking advantage of puroindoline’s solubility in the detergent Triton X-114 . These various AFPs discussed highlight the potential of using AFPs as anti-fungal agents for agricultural purposes. In the past decade,vertical tower for strawberries there has been an increase in interest towards proteins containing domain of unknown function for their capability in fighting plant pathogens and especially fungi .

DUF26 is a cysteine rich domain with a conserved C-X8-C-X2-C motif. DUF26-containing proteins are a large, land plant-specific protein family and characteristic of embryophytes . Similarities with fungal lectins suggests DUF26-containing proteins constitute a group of plant carbohydrate-binding proteins able to recognize specific fungal sugar motifs. There are three groups of DUF26-containing proteins: the cysteinerich receptor-like secreted proteins , cysteine-rich receptorlike kinase and plasmodesmata-localized proteins . The three DUF26-containing protein groups were all previously associated with anti-fungal activities. Nevertheless, only CRRSPs remain as good candidates for biotechnological application since CRKs and PDLPs contain transmembrane domains and localize to the membranes. CRRSPs contain a signal peptide followed by one or more DUF26 domains, separated by a variable region. The most well-known CRRSP is Ginkbilobin2 , which was isolated from seeds of Ginkgo biloba and able to inhibit the growth of F. oxysporum, T. reesei, and C. albicans. This anti-fungal activity is likely due to the binding of DUF26 domain with sugar moieties on the fungal cell wall . For instance, Gnk2 interacts specifically with mannan, a yeast cell wall polysaccharide, and mannose, a building block of mannan, by strictly recognizing the hydroxy group at the C4 position of the monosaccharide. Consistently, two maize CRRSPs have been characterized to interact directly with the hyphal surface of Ustilago maydis, and the activity can be rendered by Rsp3, a U. maydis effector covering its surface . In addition to direct binding with fungal cell walls, DUF26- containing proteins from CRRSP family also protect plants using indirect mechanisms. CRR1, a secreted apoplastic protein from cotton, and composed of two Cys-rich DUF26 motifs, interacts and protects the anti-fungal apoplastic chitinase 28 from cleavage by VdSSEP1, a pathogen related protease. Importantly, over expressing CRR1 in heterologous plants such as Arabidopsis thaliana and Nicothiana tabacum improved plant resistance to B. cinerea and P. parasitica, respectively. Thus, CRR1 could be a good candidate as a co-anti-fungal agent and simultaneous exogenous application of CRR1 and chitinases should be evaluated. Another CRRSP of interest is the recently reported CBM1-interacting protein in rice.

Pathogenetic fungi generally use cell wall degrading enzymes to destruct plant cell walls, and many CWDEs use carbohydrate binding modules to facilitate the access to plant polysaccharides to advance the infection process . OsCBMIP can specifically bind to CBM of several CBM-containing CWDEs including the xylanase MoCel10A of the blast fungus pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae and slow down the infection progress. Interestingly, OsCBMIP cannot inhibit the growth of M. oryzae and F. oxysporum in vitro, and this further indicates that OsCBMIP slows down the infection of pathogenetic fungi through indirect mechanism, here specially, through inhibiting CBM-containing CWDEs. In another study, a transcriptomic analysis of wheat after Bipolaris sorokiniana or Rhizoctania cerealis infection reported the induction of a cysteine-rich protein , TaCRR. When heterologously expressed, this DUF26-containing protein showed a clear anti-fungal activity. Besides, it was found that silencing TaCRR gene in wheat significantly decreased the expression of pathogenesis-related genes such as β-1,3-glucanase, defensin or chitinases. Owing to their apoplastic localization and direct or indirect anti-fungal activities, DUF26-containing proteins from the CRRSP class remain as attractive candidates for the future development of anti-fungal agents. Polygalacturonase inhibiting proteins are a family of leucine rich repeat proteins found in plant cell walls whose primary role is to inhibit polygalacturonases , enzymes secreted by insects and fungal pathogens that degrade the plant cell walls and leave it vulnerable for infection . Through competitive or noncompetitive inhibition, PGIPs slow the hydrolysis process of PGs . Presently, numerous studies show that overexpression of PGIPs in transgenic plants leads to increased fungal resistance. The best-documented PGIP is PGIP2 from Phaseolus vulgaris , the common bean. PvPGIP2 has been successfully expressed in transgenic plants, resulting in increased resistance to fungal infections against Alternaria citri, Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, B. cinerea, Claviceps purpurea, and F. graminearum. Similarly, expression of PGIP3 from soybeans in tobacco has been shown to inhibit the growth of pathogenic Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Fusarium moniliforme, B. aclada, A. niger, Collectotrichum acutatum, and F. graminearum; and expressing PGIP2 from lima beans in tobacco also delayed growth of Collectrichum lupini, B. cinerea, F. moniliforme, and A. niger.

Recently, it is also found that truncated PvPGIP2 with only the optimal docking area retains similar level of inhibitory activities towards PGs from A. niger and B. cinerea to the full-length PvPGIP2 . Yeast strains secreting full-length or truncated PvPGIP2 with the Ost 1 signal peptide were also able to reduce fungal growth and delay sporulation by 1–2 days . Although the function of PGIPs when applied exogenously on plants has not been reported, this group of proteins is still considered as a promising candidate to be developed into an eco-friendly fungal control agent. Albumins are a major class of water soluble, seed storage proteins that are used as a source of nutrients for plants during germination. Among them, 2S albumins have anti-fungal capabilities, in addition to a variety of activities including anti-cancer, anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, and serine-protease inhibiting properties . These small storage proteins are present in both monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plant seeds and typically have a disulfide bridge linking two different subunits,container vertical farming which are typically between 3 kDA and 10 kDA in size. For example, pumpkin 2S albumin is thermal-stable at up to 90 ◦C, and exhibits inhibitory activity against the fungal pathogen F. oxysporum. Similarly, a crude extract of peanut containing 2S albumin was found to inhibit growth of A. flavus; the 2S albumin ortholog from passionfruit could also inhibit the fungal pathogens T. harizanum and F. oxysporum, C. musae, and C. lindemuthianum; and the 2S albumin ortholog from Putranjiva roxburghiicould inhibit the growth of F. oxysporum, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, C. albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus, and A. flavus. In addition, putrin is stable at up to 50 ◦C and within a pH range from 6 – 8. On the other hand, 2S albumin from white sesame seeds, oriental mustard, and Brazil nuts can bind to IgE sera, which may trigger an allergic response in humans. Thus, before 2S albumin can be utilized as an exogenously applied anti-fungal agent, we need to either engineer the protein to eliminate or reduce the allergenicity or modify the application in a manner that avoids either extensive contact or consumption. The fresh market berry industry in Santa Cruz and Monterey counties is an excellent example of transformation in the business of agriculture over the last 50 years. Located along the Central Coast of California, the two counties span the fertile Pajaro and Salinas valleys, and are well known for their amenable climate and production conditions, their diverse crop mix and grower demographics, and their developed agricultural infrastructure and support industries. The majority of the berry sector is comprised of strawberries , raspberries and blackberries , with blueberries and other miscellaneous berries produced on a much more limited basis. Substantial research-based literature and historical information is available for Central Coast strawberries; however, despite the area’s move towards greater production of raspberries and blackberries, less information exists for these crops.

We seek here to provide a more complete portrayal and historical context for the berry industry in the Santa Cruz and Monterey area, which is the origin of the berry industry in California. While the berry industry has been very successful in recent decades, it now faces new challenges, such as invasive pests and the phaseout of the soil fumigant methyl bromide. This article draws on previous and more recent research to discuss some of the influences that have contributed to the berry industry’s dramatic expansion in Santa Cruz and Monterey counties, including selected innovations in agricultural practices and heightened consumer demand. Berry industry growth During the 1960s and 1970s, the number of acres planted to berries, tons produced and value of production fluctuated. The fluctuations can be partly explained by farm management: in the past growers often rotated berry and vegetable crops to assist with soil and pest management, thereby influencing these statistics. However, annual crop reports from the county agricultural commissioners show that since the 1980s, berries have become increasingly important to each county’s overall value of production, and by 2014 accounted for 64% and 17% of the total value of all agricultural products in Santa Cruz and Monterey counties, respectively . The industry’s growth can be explained by a shift of some acreage out of tree fruits and field crops , among others, into berries, and by additional acreage put into agricultural production. Strawberries are the undisputed leader in the berry sector and in 2014 represented 58% and 94% of the value of all berry production in Santa Cruz and Monterey counties, respectively , and 50% and 93% of all berry acreage . Table 2 documents the remarkable expansion of the strawberry industry over time in both counties with respect to acreage, tons produced and value of production. Between 1960 and 2014, acreage more than tripled and production increased tenfold. The value of production, in real dollars, increased by 424% in Monterey County and by 593% in Santa Cruz County, reaching an astonishing combined value of nearly $1 billion in both 2010 and 2014. The gains in all statistical categories in Monterey County were enabled in part by an expansion of production into the southern reaches of the county where more and larger blocks of farmland are available, and where land rents are lower than in Santa Cruz and northern Monterey counties. However, from 2010 to 2014 Monterey County’s tonnage and production values declined, possibly because the area has recently experienced a shortage of labor to harvest fresh market crops. Tonnage was also lower in Santa Cruz County, but production values increased. This may be because of the county’s greater emphasis on local agriculture, organic production and direct market sales, which are often associated with higher crop values. For raspberries, the acreage, tons produced and value of production grew steadily and most strikingly in Santa Cruz County , where production conditions for caneberries are optimal. For example, caneberry fields in Santa Cruz County are situated in areas that have well-drained soils and are protected from damaging winds. Also, fields are planted to take advantage of the growth and yield gains associated with southern exposures. Moreover, field-to-cooler travel distances are shorter in Santa Cruz County, which is critical for safeguarding the quality and marketability of these highly perishable crops.