However, some pathogens can exploit the SA/JA antagonism for their own benefit ; for example, B. cinerea produces an elicitor ofSA responses through the NPR1-dependent pathway, which leads to the inactivation of two JA-response genes, Proteinase I and II, that are required for resistance against necrotrophs . ET can counteract the negative effects of NPR1 on JA responses, but it also enhances the NPR1-dependent expression of SA defense genes . Leon-Reyes et al. proposed that the concurrent activation of ET and JA pathways promotes plant insensitivity to subsequent SA-mediated suppression of JAdependent defenses, which then favors effective resistance against pathogens of different lifestyles. Hence, localized synthesis and perception of JA, ET, and SA at the appropriate relative concentration and timing appear to be required for plant resistance. During infections of fruit, ET, SA, and JA networks might interact to stimulate defenses. Nonetheless, accumulation of susceptibility factors as a consequence of ET-triggered senescence/ripening and the antagonism between SA and JA responses may represent opposing influences in the fruit–pathogen interaction and, thus, lead to susceptibility.Increased expression of the tomato 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase 1 , a key ABA bio-synthetic gene, occurs during early infection of susceptible fruit , which suggests a link between ABA synthesis and fruit susceptibility. Several plant pathogens, including B. cinerea, generate ABA during infection or use effectors to induce its production by the host, round plastic plant pot facilitating senescence/ripening and subsequent colonization of the ripened tissue . ABA has been involved in fruit ripening of climacteric and non-climacteric fruit .

Exogenous treatments of ABA induce the expression of the ripening-associated ET biosynthetic genes LeACS2, LeACS4, and LeACO1, thereby, triggering ET production and ripening . In tomato fruit, expression of the 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase 1 increases at the onset of ripening prior to the ET climacteric rise . A slight induction of LeNCED1 was detected in infected MG fruit , which could have been prematurely induced to initiate climacteric ripening; however, a significant decrease in expression occurs at the late stage of ripening . The development and analysis of a genetic knock-out mutant line in LeNCED1 will be instrumental to understand the impact of ABA synthesis during the increase in ripe fruit susceptibility. The expression of FLACCA, a tomato molybdenum cofactor synthase that is involved in ABA biosynthesis, increases as consequence of ripening, but it is reduced in response to the B. cinerea infection . These observations indicate that the plant may reduce the expression of FLACCA in an effort to contain the rise in ABA production caused by the pathogen colonization; however, experimental evidence is needed to test this hypothesis. The interaction between tomato fruit and B. cinerea results in significant changes in the expression of 37% genes involved in the ABA signaling pathway . Alterations in regulators of ABA signaling/responses are detected as well as changes in membrane protein channels . In general, increased expression of the PYL/PYR/RCAR receptors was observed in RR fruit . The PYL/PYR/RCAR receptors are positive regulators of ABA response by blocking the PP2Cs inhibitors . In Arabidopsis, suppression of three PP2C clade A phosphatases results in constitutive activation of ABA signaling and increased susceptibility to fungal infection .

In agreement with these results, significant up-regulation of a RCAR1 homolog and down-regulation of a PP2C homolog in infected RR fruit at 1 and 3 dpi provides further support for a positive relationship between ABA responses and susceptibility . Enhanced expression of suppressor genes throughout the ABA hormonesignaling network is detected after inoculation with B. cinerea of resistant MG fruit . In contrast to the increased expression in MG fruit, the homolog RACK1_a is significantly down-regulated in RR fruit at 1 and 3 dpi . Previous studies have demonstrated a role for RACK1 in the activation of defense mechanisms in response to pathogens in rice. The rice RACK1 homolog triggers ROS production, defense gene expression, and disease resistance by interacting with OsRac1, a Rac/Rop small GTPase involved in basal immune responses . It is plausible that tomato homolog of RACK1 has a similar role in fruit by controlling infections in MG fruit. The contribution of ABA to the enhanced susceptibility of ripe fruit is supported by the disease development assays with the tomato sitiens mutant which fails to synthesize ABA . Inoculation of RR sitiens fruit with B. cinerea resulted in a significant decrease in disease incidence when compared to the infected wild-type RR fruit . Interestingly, about 40% of the inoculated sites in RR sitiens fruit displayed the typical localized necrotic response of wild-type MG green fruit . MG sitiens fruit are as resistant as MG wild-type fruit . The molecular mechanisms that mediate the reduction of susceptibility in RR sitiens fruit are not known; however, analysis of necrotrophic infections in leaves of sitiens plants suggest that a strong induction of defense-related genes , the oxidative burst, and an increase in cuticle permeability might be crucial for the resistant phenotype of this mutant .Plants modulate the ET, SA, JA, and ABA hormone networks to induce immune responses against the attacks by various classes of pathogens .

Recent studies indicate that other hormones such as auxin, gibberellins, cytokinins, cell wall oligogalacturonides, and brassinosteroids might also be implicated in responses to pathogens either directly or by interacting with other hormones . The interactions among hormones provide the plant with a powerful regulatory potential, but also give opportunities for pathogens tomanipulate the plant defense-signaling networks to their advantage . Plants in their natural environments infrequently interact with a single pathogen species, rather they are impacted by microbial communities, herbivores, and other plants, all of which could individually, collectively or cooperatively influence responses to contact with pathogens. This complexity should be taken into account when studying plant–pathogen associations. In fruit, high levels of ET and ABA, which stimulate senescence/ripening processes, may facilitate colonization by necrotrophs. The balance between SA and JA responses seems to be crucial for resistance in unripe fruit, while ABA production correlates with ripe fruit susceptibility. ET, at appropriate concentrations, also contributes to the resistance of fruit by activating JA and/or ET responses and possibly by blocking the antagonistic effect of SA on JA signaling. Hence, the role of plant hormones in promoting fruit resistance or susceptibility depends on the interaction of several factors, including: the concentration of the hormones, the timing of the synthesis and perception of the hormones, the competence of the host tissue to respond to active forms of the hormones, the localization of the plant’s response to the hormones, and the pathogen’s infection strategy, including its own production of hormones. The interaction between tomato fruit and B. cinerea causes transcriptional reprograming of multiple plant hormone networks simultaneously, and, depending on the developmental stage of the fruit contributes to either resistance or susceptibility outcomes. In Figure 6, we provide an overview of key expression changes of genes involved in biosynthesis, modification, signaling, and response pathways of the hormones that, based on our transcriptome profiling analysis and validation, we propose to be part of the regulation of the resistance-to-susceptibility transition associated with ripening and healthy fruit ripening. Analytical methods that allow the simultaneous profiling of multiple signaling molecules that are produced during fruit infections , will shed further light on the signaling networks that control fruit susceptibility in the context of ripening, but the challenge of identifying whether the hormones are synthesized by the host or by the pathogens will still be a limitation. New strategies to study complex gene networks involved in hormone signaling in fruit–pathogen interactions, including the analysis of natural or induced mutants in both plants and pathogens, 25 liter round pot the use of laser micro-dissection and cell-specific transcriptomics, and metabolomics can contribute novel important information to our understanding of the biological and ecological importance of plant development in modulating resistance and susceptibility. From an applied perspective, evaluating the specific hormonal events that promote fruit susceptibility may facilitate the development of commodities that ripen successfully and yet are less susceptible to pathogen infection.Diabetes is a multifaceted metabolic disorder affecting carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism. It is caused by increased levels of circulating blood sugar and insulin deficiency characterized by abnormal insulin secretion and insulin resistance in the body. Type-2diabetes affects 80% of those living with diabetes and is largely due to an unhealthy diet and a sedentary lifestyle, which might lead to persistent high glucose levels in the blood, oxidative stress, aging, and other metabolic imbalances. The use of the non-vertebrate organism Drosophila melanogaster as a model tool for research on various human diseases is important because this fly has biochemical features and characteristics similar to those of mammals; therefore, its use is increasing.

This model organism has been tested and has gained worldwide reputation for use in biomedical research, such as in diabetes studies and in other studies involving genetic manipulations. Certain reports identified that disease-causing genes in humans are conserved in Drosophila melanogaster, such as those associated with the insulin-like growth factor signaling pathway. About 70–75% of the brain cells in the fruit fly are insulin producing cells that are similar to the vertebrate pancreatic β cells and secrete seven insulin-like peptides. In addition to this, using the fruit fly for research studies is easy and cost-effective, since it is not expensive to maintain them. The indigenous eggplant belongs to the Solanaceae family and is locally called “Igba Yinrin” by the Yoruba people in South-West Nigeria. It is commonly known as a forest bitter berry and a non-tuberous and highly polymorphic indigenous medicinal fruit that is widely distributed in non-arid areas of Africa and has nutritional and therapeutic potential. A study reported that ripe and the unripe eggplants are used in folklore medicine. These eggplants is also used in Ghana and Cameroon cuisine as one of the ingredients of a dish called “Nkwi”. Despite the benefits of the unripe fruits being known, no study has reported the properties of the ripe fruit which is usually left to waste and rot in farms. The ripe eggplant fruits are usually discarded partly due to their low acceptability and the ignorance of their benefits and thus are among the post-harvest food crops lost after harvest in Nigeria, West Africa. Meanwhile, a study showed that ripening brings changes in the fruit content of phenolic compounds, organic acids, and carbohydrates, as well as in its color, texture, and flavor. Nigeria is facing an immense food insecurity challenge, a problem partly attributed to the increasing loss of food crops during post-harvest handling and distribution to retail markets. The reduction in post-harvest loss of this eggplant fruit and its use as a food ingredient for functional food development, such as in cookies and dumplings, could promote sustainable food security and a better health treatment/management of noncommunicable diseases and cardiovascular diseases , a task that requires an integrated approach . Therefore, this research was carried out on both ripe and unripe eggplants to compare their biological effects, with a focus on the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-diabetic properties of a diet containing ripe Solanum anguivi lam fruits in diabetic Drosophila melanogaster .Ripe and unripe eggplant fruits were obtained from the botanical garden of the FUTA, Akure, as shown in Figure S1 . The identification and authentication of the fruits were performed at the FUTA Herbarium; and were recorded with number 0291a and 0291b. Common fruit processing methods were adopted, including cleaning, sorting, cutting, pulping, drying, and grinding the fruits as needed. The fruits were processed according to the method described by.Mineral elements were analyzed according to AOAC and Perkin-Elmer. The method described in was used to determine the total carotenoid content, while vitamin C determination was carried using a method reported in [16], vitamin A content was determined according to [17], and vitamin E content was obtained according to [18]. HPLC–UV [high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection] was carried out on the samples as described in [19]. This is an advanced technique used for separating and quantifying bio-active compounds in a mixture. In this method, a liquid sample is loaded in a column, and its components are detected by their absorption of ultraviolet light, which provides quantitative and qualitative information. The standard compounds in Table 1 were investigated and identified according to a standard protocol.The eggplant fruits were washed, cut, and then blended into a puree. The puree was filtered through cheesecloth to collect the liquid, which was the eggplant extract and was freeze-dried.