To improve our previous protocol, we hypothesize that optimizing the disinfection protocol and seed scarification would increase the speed and frequency of seed germination. As with most aspects of a tissue culture system, in vitro disinfection is a complex and non-linear process that is affected by numerous factors such as disinfectant and contaminant types and levels, media pH, immersion time, temperature, and theirinteractions . In the disinfection process, the concentration of disinfectants plays a conflicting dual role relating to contamination frequency and seed viability . Higher disinfectant concentrations generally lead to a greater control over contaminants; however, lower seedling viability is often the trade-off . Therefore, it is necessary to optimize the disinfection process. The disinfection process cannot be represented by a simple stepwise algorithm, especially when the datasets are highly imbalanced and noisy . Therefore, artifificial intelligence models combined with optimization algorithms such as a genetic algorithm can be employed as an efficient and reliable computational method to inter-pret, forecast, and optimize this complex system .

This strategy has been successfully used for modeling and optimizing different tissue culture systems, including in vitro decontamination, shoot proliferation, androgenesis, somatic embryogenesis, secondary metabolite production, and rhizogenesis . Ivashchuk et al. employed multilayer perceptron and radial basis function as two well-known artificial neural networks for modeling and predicting the effect of different disinfectants and immersion times for Bellevalia sarmatica, Echinacea purpurea, and Nigella damascene explant decontamination. They reported that both algorithms were able to accurately model and predict the disinfection process . In another study, Hesami et al. applied a hybrid MLP and non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-II for the modeling and optimization of disinfectants and immersion times for chrysanthemum leaf segment decontamination. A generalized regression neural network is another type of ANNs that has successfully been used for modeling and predicting different tissue culture processes . Although there exist no reports using GRNN for the modeling and optimization of disinfection process, we previously showed that GRNN has a higher predictive performance than RBF, MLP, and the adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system for cannabis micropropagation .

Therefore, in the current study, we used GRNN-GA to model and optimize cannabis seed disinfection. Mature seed germination can sometimes be more difficult than immature seed germination due to the increase in the seed coat’s impermeability and the accumulation of inhibitors during seed maturation . Hence, dormancy breaking plays a critical role relating to the speed and frequency of seed germination due to morpho-physiological dormancy . Although there are no reports on the effects of scarification on cannabis seed germination, the positive impact of dormancy breaking by scarification has previously been suggested in several plants, such as Limodorum , Salvia stenophylla , and legumes . Based on this evidence, studying the effect of scarification on cannabis seed germination can pave the way for devising an in vitro seed germination protocol with high speed and germination frequency. The current study uses GRNN-GA to model and optimize cannabis seed disinfection, and investigates the effect of scarification on seed germination. By combining these procedures, a superior in vitro cannabis seed germination protocol that limits contamination while allowing high germination rates in a short timeframe was established. In vitro seed germination of cannabis has great potential to improve the efficiency of elite cultivar selection, pheno-hunting, phenotyping, and to support various in vitro culture methods as initial explant materials .

In orthodox seeds, germination typically initiates with the passive uptake of water by the dry mature seed, and terminates with radicle protrusion through the seed envelope . Different abiotic factors affect seed germination,mainly through regulating the signaling and metabolism pathways of abscisic acid and gibberellic acid . Although cannabis seeds easily germinate within several days under greenhouse or fifield conditions, in vitro cannabis seed germination tends to be more difficult, with lower germination rates spread over a longer period of time. The cause of this difference is unknown, but is likely related to the disinfection protocol that may stress the developing embryo or potentially eliminate microbes that play a role in the germination process. As such, optimizing sterilization and scarification protocols can be considered the two most important procedures for successful in vitro seed germination . The surface sterilization of initial source material, including seeds, is a prerequisite for the success of the culture . Therefore, it is vital to optimize the sterilization protocol while allowing it to remain simple, cheap, environmentally friendly, and efficient .

The involvement and “ownership” of local communities, that are the ultimate beneficiaries of interventions, whether treatments are addressed to humans or animals or the environment, should indeed be mandatory for all One Health interventions, dealing with all types of conditions, not only parasitic ones. Only a deep understanding of communities’ practices and customs can allow for the conception of potentially effective initiatives, which should be co-designed with recipient communities. For example, in the early 2010s, conversations with cattle keepers from northern Uganda , reporting of being not rarely bitten by “colourful” ornate ticks led to documenting for the first time in the country the occurrence of the zoonotic pathogen R. africae, causative agent of African Tick-Bite Fever , a condition often misdiagnosed with malaria- or flu-like syndromes . Such finding highlighted the risk of exposure to ATBF of rural communities in northern Uganda, underpinning the importance of raising awareness on this rickettsiosis, particularly among persons handling cattle as well as among physicians practicing in these areas, and those who care for returning travellers.

It is thanks to farmers’ viewpoints that this investigation could be started, and such a public health risk could be unveiled.The multisectoral nature of the approach here recommended entails the participation in One Health initiatives of all stakeholders potentially concerned, including civil society, academia, industry, institutions and their policy-makers. Academic parasitologists should therefore strive for engaging with civil society any time the investigations that they conduct may have possible repercussions on the latter. With data in hand, parasitologists as other scientists in the field of One Health, should engage in societal debate and rendertheir research rationales, methodologies, findings and recommendations intelligible not only to the general public, but also to administrators. To some extent, the COVID- 19 pandemic has shown that concepts such as antigenic or serological testing or even that of One Health itself, can become more widely accessible than they used to be beforehand, out of necessity. At the same time, academics and industry actors should proactively seek to collaborate with each other. The contribution of the private sector is indeed essential in the fight against parasitic and vector-borne infections, as it allows to deliver “ready to use” solutions such as drugs, vaccines, insecticides and diagnostic tools.

At the same time, serendipities happening in laboratories at universities and research institutes can lead to breakthrough discoveries that could be ultimately turned into “actual products”, responding to unmet needs on the ground, through win-win partnerships with the private sector. With multiple programmes being often conducted concurrently in neighbouring, if not overlapping, geographic areas, addressing either the same or different diseases, there is a need for harmonised actions. These would be possible through the establishment of a steady dialogue among key actors of projects’ cycles, including programmers and formulators , implementers and monitoring and evaluation teams. Creating, whenever possible, synergies between incoming projects and previous and/or concomitant initiatives can allow to optimise results and minimise possible redundancies and “stakeholder fatigue”, for the sake of the common good. With global health gaining presumably increasingly more political attention in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic , prioritising interventions based on burden of diseases is undoubtedly an important instrument for agenda setting. In this view, the availability of reliable data, generated through robust methodologies and thorough analyses, is essential. Finally, for it to be “ever topical” and effective, the One Health approach should also be forward-looking, and rely on institutional policies fostering research and innovation, both at public and private level, and continuing education and training in parasitology and entomology.

Only through constant R&D efforts, entailing collaborations among academia, industry and PDPs, it can be hoped that more parasitic and arthropod-borne conditions of humans and animals or both, NTDs included, could be effectively controlled in the future. Fostering research and innovation as well as manufacturing capacity locally in Africa, not only could prove logistically practical and ultimately cost-effective, considering these efforts are addressed to endemic conditions of the continent, but can also provide the African burgeoning youth with major employment opportunities. The know-how built by the Institut Pasteur de Dakar, only centre in Africa able to produce a yellow fever vaccine and soon to produce vaccines against COVID-19 , as well as the institution of the University of Global Health Equity in Rwanda and the One Health Research, Education and Outreach Centre in Africa in Kenya and the Africa One Health University Network  are just some encouraging examples in this respect, among other ongoing initiatives.

The author wishes to express his gratitude to Colombian farmers for their hospitality during conducting some of this research. Without the collaboration of the many former field laborers, secretaries, research associates, students and colleagues, who are now dispersed across countries, the achievements highlighted here would have never been obtained. The invaluable courtesy copies of books documenting important research on crop ecology by David Connor, Robert Loomis and Kenneth Cassman, and on climate change by Mary Beth Kirkham, and Cynthia Rosenzweig, article reprints from Andy Jarvis, Julian Ramirez-Villegas and David Rosenthal were appreciated.Constructive comments from anonymous reviewers were received. Thanks to Farah El-Sharkawy Navarro for the editorial and the WWWnet search assistance.

With nearly 60% of its population under the age of 25 years, Africa is the “youngest” continent on earth . Currently hosting a total of 1.37 billion people , corresponding to almost a double of Europe’s 750 million, the continent is expected to reach the size of 2.5 billion inhabitants by 2050 and of approximately 4 billion by 2100 . By then, one person in every three worldwide will be from the African continent. This exponential growth is expected to be accompanied by an equally significant increase in the continent’s need in animal source foods. Indeed, Africa’s demand for meat, milk and eggs will almost quadruple by 2050 , with annual growth rates of consumption estimated at 2.3% for milk and 2.8% for meat . Currently, however, not only Africa is overall a net food importer , but it is also the most food insecure region in the world, the only one in which the absolute number of undernourished people has increased in the past 30 years , and where that of stunted children under five is still rising . Presently, nearly 60% of Africans are moderately or severely food insecure, with more than 90% of them residing in sub-Saharan Africa . At thesame time, overweight rates are also increasing , highlighting the continent’s need for nutritious foods. Yet, Africa harbours 60% of the world’s uncultivated arable land , with one-quarter of the world’s cultivable land being in sub-Saharan Africa but only producing 10% of the global agricultural output .

Therefore, the continent’s rising demand for animal protein could be potentially met, at least partly, through enhanced local agricultural production, made possible by improving the productivity of farming processes , as envisaged by the African Union’s Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme  and New Alliance for food security and nutrition . This agricultural transformation process may also include possible access by livestock keepers to wild areas hardly attended or inhabited thus far, to make room for livestock rearing and grazing . By creating new human–animal–environment interfaces, such an expansion may however bring health risks, as pathogens from wildlife could spill over onto domestic animals and people . Moreover, the ongoing climatic changes and global warming may also compound this scenario. Indeed, the spread of desertification threatening several African regions such as the Sahel and the Horn of Africa , may cause the potential concentration of livestock keeping in certain areas, in the form of more intensified livestock rearing, conceivably increasing land erosion . Furthermore, Africa’s ongoing vertiginous urbanisation at a 3.5% yearly rate is also expected to contribute to the convergence of livestock and people on urban and peri-urban areas in the coming decades . This would provide intensified occasions of contact between humans, domesticated and wild animals, thereby creating augmented opportunities for the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases and zoonoses1.

Altogether, this will require an enhanced surveillance and monitoring of livestock and environmental health, including wildlife movement and fitness, biodiversity richness, as well as use and management of water, land cover and vegetation. Although with a certain degree of variability according to countries, overall Africa has so far been hit by a lower number of COVID-19 cases and fatalities compared to other continents of the world . However, the pandemic has still shown to be a major source of hindrance, especially during the first wave of lockdowns in 2020, when the setbacks of international trade caused serious disruptions in food value chains and supplies . Under COVID-19, Africa’s food security has also been further weakened due to income reductions and food price inflation, outcomes of lower availability of agricultural labour and produces, reduced liquidity for traders and interruptions of social protection programmes . In 2020, the number of Africans facing hunger increased by 3%, with approximately 46 million more undernourished people being recorded compared to the previous year.

The quantity of total lipids was significantly increased in CA1, a non-significant change was observed in CA2, while a decrease was recorded in CA3. Furthermore, a significant increase in fiber content was recorded in CA1, a decrease was found in CA3, while there was no change in the fiber content of CA2. Upward trends in total proteins, flavonoids, saponins, and glycosides were noticed .The results showed an increase in GDH and GOGAT activity in the three species. The rise in GDH activity was significant in CA3, while it was non-significant in other species. Inversely, GS activity was decreased after Mo treatment and the differences were highly significant in the three species/cultivars.

Further, the impact of Mo treatmenton dihydrodipicolinate synthase and cystathionine γ- synthase activity was explored. The experiment showed that the activity of DHDPS significantly increased in CA3 and non-significantly in CA1 and CA2 . Moreover, a notable increase in the activity of CGS was measured in sprouts of CA3 . Furthermore, amino acids, i.e., asparagine, glutamine, glycine, glutamic acid, isoleucine, arginine, tyrosine, lysine, serine, alanine, proline, histidine, leucine, isoleucine, valine, cystine, threonine, tryptophan, and methionine, were quantified in Mo-treated Canavalia species and data were compared to untreated controls. The changes in each amino acid content due to Mo exposure are shown in Table 2. Overall, an increase in amino acid production was detected in the three species. The quantity of cystine, isoleucine, leucine, glycine, alanine, and proline was increased significantly in CA1; asparagine, glutamine, glutamic acid, alanine, proline, cystine, and lysine were enhanced in CA2; and asparagine, glutamine, glycine, histidine, methionine, cystine, isoleucine, tyrosine, lysine, threonine, and tryptophan were enhanced in CA3. Variable trends were noticed among different sprouts.

The concentrations of alanine and proline were found to be improved in CA1 and CA2, while they declined in CA3. Levels of histidine, arginine, valine, threonine, and tryptophan increased in CA1 and CA3, whereas they decreased in CA2. Leucine was increased in CA1 and reduced in CA3 and CA2. All results are enumerated in Table 2. R software was used to perform principal component analysis . For this, Motreated and untreated species of Canavalia were chosen to analyze the interrelationship of amino acid content, phenolics, antioxidant activities, and antidiabetic activities. Here, the 1st principal component showed 36% of the variance, while the 2nd principal component showed 28% variance between untreated and Mo-treated Canavalia species, as shown in Figure 5. PC1 vs. PC2 showed significant differences among Mo-treated anduntreated plant species as well as between CA1 and CA3. Both PCs displayed positive correlations among most of the parameters. PC1 was highly and positively correlated with many phenols, such as rutin, caffeic acid, kaempferol, rosmarinic acid, naringenin, and coumaric acid, etc., and amino acids including alanine, proline, cystine, and methionine, etc., whereas PC2 was positively related to histidine and valine. The results showed that all phenolic acids, as well as the total amount of phenols, differed with Mo treatment, whereas the treatments and species of Canavalia were well separated in the map of PCA. Moreover, the results of antioxidant activities also showed a positive correlation, assessed by ABTS and FRAP assays.

Micronutrients are crucial for plant growth and development. Their deficiency contributes to a reduction in growth and changes in photosynthesis due to variations in pigment synthesis. Increased chloroplast deformation, the over-production of antioxidant enzymes, and increased production of proteins are the most common signs of stress-related responses in plants. Mo, a micronutrient, acts as a cofactor for several enzymes, thus helping to promote plant growth and biomass , and its exposure can lead to dramatic effects on Canavalia species. In the current study, the biomass of sproutings, in both Mo-treated and untreated groups, was quantified. Our findings revealed that Mo treatment significantly increased the fresh weight of sproutings in all the studied Canavalia species/cultivars. Alam et al. also observed that Mo application proportionately enhanced the weight of nodules in hairy vetch roots . This observation might be attributed to the fact that plants require micronutrients for biosynthetic pathways and plant growth . Next, the impact of Mo on the photosynthesis process was assessed, for which pigments such as chlorophyll and carotenoids play an important role. Chlorophyll, which includes chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and chlorophyll ab, is a green pigment for photosynthesis.

Leaf photosynthesis was lowest in cool climate leaves , and after one week of acclimation in warmer climate photosynthetic rates partially increased with an apparent upward shift in optimum temperature, particularly in the cool-humid habitat cv M Col 2059. Rates of leaves developed in warm climate were the highest, showing also an apparent upward shift in optimum temperature. Rates in all sets of leaves were greater in the hot-humid cultivar from Brazil, M Bra 12. These findings attest to the adaptability of cassava to warmer climate, and hence to its predicted suitability to future climate changes as shown in Figure 2. The adaptation of cassava photosynthetic capacity to warmer temperature is also illustrated by the lack of light saturation in warmclimate leaves, compared to responses observed in cool-climate leaves and in cool-climate leaves acclimated for one week in warm climate.

Under field conditions at the university of Illinois, Urbana, US, using the sophisticated “Free Air Carbon Dioxide Enrichment ” method, increasing to 585 ppm within canopy for 30 days enhanced cassava leaf photosynthesis, as measured at elevated , for both plants growing at ambient and elevated , with the former showing greater response . However, when leaf photosynthesis was measured at greater than 600 ppm, plants grown at elevated CO2 showed, over the tested external CO2 range, consistent and slightly higher rates than plants grown at ambient CO2. Such data indicate that acclimation of photosynthesis , if it occurs due to long exposure to higher than ambient CO2, may not result in reduction in cassava growth and productivity. Similar findings were reported from Venezuela using opentop chambers where cassava photosynthesis, growth and root yield of field-grown plants exposed during its entire growth period to double-ambient CO2 concentrations, were significantly greater than those in ambient CO2- grown plants . Also, greenhouse-grown cassava under elevated CO2 at USDA-ARS labs in Maryland, US, had greeter photosynthesis, biomass and yield, compared to ambient CO2 level-grown cassava .

These findings contradict reports from Australia on potted indoor-grown cassava, where leaf photosynthesis, plant growth and storage roots were reduced in plants grown in elevated CO2, compared to plants grown under ambient CO2 . Cassava is a shrub that requires large volume of soils for storage root development and filling, and therefore, in the Australian experiments there were apparently feedback inhibition of leaf photosynthesis due to restricted root-sinks. Moreover, cassava plant is resilient in nature with plasticity in its growth habits forming several branches on main stems associated with reproductive organs in most cultivars, thus, providing alternative sinks for extra photo-assimilates . This type of growth and phenology behavior with multiple and larger sink demands for photo-assimilates should enhance leaf photosynthesis under elevated CO2 and, hence, could lead to greater total biomass and yield . Using the EPIC crop model to assess the impact of climate change on cassava adaptability and productivity in marginal lands of northeastern Thailand, Sangpenchan reported that cassava grown in water-limited areas would benefit from the so-called “CO2 fertilization” contribution when combined with improved production technologies. Moreover, the crop would likely respond to rising CO2 by decreasing its evapotranspiration rate because of its tight stomatal control mechanism and, hence, increasing the efficiency with which it used limited water supply predicted with climate changes. When cassava leaves were exposed to dry air under laboratory conditions, their stomata closed in both well-watered and stressed plants without changes in leaf water potential. Transpiration initially increased with rising leaf-to-air vapor pressure deficit up to 2 kPa and then declined with further increases. Such response contrasts with transpiration in maize leaves where transpiration increased with rising VPD.

At canopy level in wet soils, raising air humidity via fine misting enhanced PN that led to increases in storage roots . The striking response to humidity is a “stress avoidance mechanism” that underlies cassava conservative water use, particularly under soil water deficits, an advantage as compared to less sensitive species such as maize. Two-year field trials were conducted under prolonged early water stress ; mid-season stress , and terminal stress . Table 3 presents data on root yield, shoot and total biomass at 12 months, and nutrient use efficiency in terms of root production. On one hand, water stress reduced shoot biomass in all stages but reduction was significant only in early stress. On the other hand, final root yield across clones was not significantly reduced at any water shortage treatment.

The frequency of fertilizer application increases linearly with the age of the farms in both sites and consequently, with high rates of NPK 20 10 10 which might contribute not only to degradation but also to the pollution of these soils.The two most common ways of fertilizer applications in Nkolbisson and Nkolondom III sites are by simple spreading and landfilling. These fertilizers are applied at 93% by simple spreading and 8% by landfilling at the Nkolondom III site . At Nkolbisson, only simple spreading is used for fertilizer application. In most cases 35.4% of these fertilizers are applied during planting, but in a few cases it is done at 4.9% several months before planting.It is worth noting that in Nkolbisson water used to irrigate vegetables have a dual origin; where 40% are from small wells build near the plots and 60% from the streams .

The water used to irrigate vegetables in Nkolbisson comes only from Abiergue stream which is highly polluted because it is the dumping ground for various excrement , waste and waste water from hospital, washing cars, motorcycles, harvested products, equipment used for the application of pesticides, as well as clothes and discarded dishes and traffic jam. Conversely, the irrigation water used inNkolondom III comes from the Kankouna River, which appears to be less polluted because human activities are less accentuated around and in this watercourse .Agricultural pesticides mainly insecticides and pesticides are applied at very high rates by farmers at the Nkolbisson and Nkolondom III sites. Most have not been trained on the management of these products .Fertilizer application is never done after soil analysis in both Nkolbisson and Nkolondom III sites, leading to several consequences ranging from improvement to degradation of soil structure according to the number of years of exploitation .

There is a potential degradation of 4.5% to 50% and 8.3% to 70%, as well as a change in soil properties in the range of 14.3% to 60% and 15% to 44% in Nkolbisson and Nkolondom III respectively. This worrying degradation coupled with the modification of soil properties is highly observed in plots of more than 26 years old at Nkolbisson, and above 16 years old at Nkolondom III. This degradation highlights the negative impact of the high use of chemical fertilizers on soil resources in these sites. A decline in crop production from 60% to 8% and 98% to 39% was observed and also the quality of the soil structure from 30.8% to 2% and 60% to 9% in the two sites .The socioeconomic data from the survey showed that farmers of the Nkolbisson and Nkolondom III sites are of equal proportion of men and women; Contrary to the trend observed in the Nkolbisson site in 2010 by Kouam and et al. . This situation may be due to urbanization, lack of jobs and dynamism of women who are now also conducting activities out of their homes. vegetable farming are mostly done at the Nkolbisson site by farmers age between 0 to 60 years while at Nkolondom III, it is carried out by those age over 30 years old.

Most vegetable farmers lack training in agriculture from both sites at Nkolbisson and Nkolondom III. This could be explained by the “high” level of intensification of this activity exerted on these soils. Indeed, new plots are more exploited compared to old plots because farmers consider that the for-mer is more productive than the latter. This justifies the high rates of fertilizers applied on the older farms. The fact that most farmers lack training on the application of chemicals products can be a major problem for health and the environment as raised by Kanda et al. . Their level of education indicates a poor knowledge on the use of pesticides, their remanence, their degree of pollution and their limit of efficiency according to the movement of pests . The level and type of training of farmers explain the regression of the frequency of exploitation of the soils according to the number of years under use. Thus, vegetable farming is practiced with techniques that are inadequate for sustainable production, which leads to a change in land use .

The continued and high rate applications of chemical fertilizers in vegetable farming increases the health, soil and water pollution risks . This could result in the degradation of groundwater quality, soil structure and changes in physicochemical properties, thus significantly reducing their fertility . Wastewater used in this agriculture increases the risk of food and groundwater pollution.These waters are suspected to be loaded with pollutants, Fecal Coliforms, Fecal Streptococci , which is not in line with the guidelines prescribed by OMS. Human activities will have to be reoriented in these areas in order to guarantee the nutrition and health of the populations.

Among the thirteen growth models the two-linear model describes the weight gain of piglets from organic farming best. This model aims at two different growth periods which actually are caused by the general conditions of the piglets’ rearing. From this moment on the piglets have no longer the opportunity to suckle milk. This implies that solid feed is the only food source and likewise water is the only source of liquid. Due to the loss of the familiar surroundings the piglets furthermore have to cope with new drinking and feeding troughs, new stable mates, new climate control and also a new germ flora. In addition to the stress attributable to weaning the immune protection of the maternal antibodies that were ingested with the colostrum directly after birth decrease and the piglets’ own immune system is still under development. In this context sometimes antibiotics are administered prophylactically in intensive livestock farming. This is not standard in organic farming with the result that in the first days of post-weaning the weight gain declines or stagnates completely.

Not until after coming through that period piglets show an increased weight gain, what corresponds with the point of intersection of the two straight lines of the model at an age of about 50 days. In contrast to De Behr , who described a step-wise linear growth model for Belgian Blue cattle less than 20 month of age, the point of intersection was not fixed in advance, but it was determined from the growth data only through the goodness of fit. The Mediterranean region has been cultivated for millennia and is the site of the evolution of settled agriculture and the center of origin of a range of important crops . Over the centuries, soils have been slowly but continuously degraded by removal of nutrients in harvest products, by intensive grazing and/or soil erosion. Adverse climatic conditions of variable and frequently inadequate rainfall and a long dry season characteristic to the Mediterranean climate render the region’s landscape vulnerable to over-exploitation and further degradation . In recent decades, agricultural production has intensified in the Mediterranean region, especially the increase with continuous cropping instead of fallow and application of mineral fertilizer.

To mitigate the negative impact of such intensification, various management practices have been developed, such as rotations as an alternative to mono-cropping , reduced tillage or no/zero tillage instead of conventional tillage, the production and use of compost from manure, straw and other organic residues or development of fertilizer best management practices . In a major shift from conventional production systems, conservation agriculture systems, embracing ZT for minimal soil disturbance, surface residue retention and crop rotation, have been adopted extensively in Australia, Canada, the USA and Latin America . This development has been driven by labor and energy savings, control of soil erosion, better soil moisture conservation  and the opportunity for earlier sowing and better yields. In addition to soil conservation, CA systems in the majority of cases have been shown to increase the amount of soil organic matter, which improves soil quality and the environmental sustainability of agro-ecosystems. The build-up of SOM involves sequestration of carbon , which may contribute to mitigation of increasing atmospheric CO2 levels , even though the potential contribution may be limited. Uptake of CA by farmers in the Mediterranean region is lagging behind uptake elsewhere in the world, even in countries such as Morocco and Tunisia where considerable research has been done . Only during the last few years some progress has been achieved .

Retention of residues in agro-ecosystems where livestock play an important role is a potential obstacle to CA adoption. In the Mediterranean region of West Asia and North Africa , sheep and goats are an integral part of farming systems – and crop residues are a crucial part of small ruminant’s diet, especially during the dry season . To address some of these issues, the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas has carried out experiments on-station or demonstrations with farmers, to test ZT and residue retention and their impact on crop yield . Few studies have been published so far focusing on soils of the Mediterranean region and how they are affected by ZT/CA practices. Therefore, in the long-term ZT/CA trials at ICARDA’s headquarters at Tel Hadya in Syria, a range of soil quality indicators were regularly monitored during 2008 to 2012, to help explain increases in crop yields that were observed under the various ZT systems. The study also sought to identify suitable indicators of increased soil quality, and quantify the amount of C that can be sequestered under partial residue retention and the impact of surface residue on soil moisture conservation and soil water evaporation.In the B4 trial, the effects of tillage and early and late planting were tested in a four-course rotation of wheat, chickpea, barley, and lentil.