Arabidopsis thaliana, on the other hand, produced acyl-glutamatyl-diclofenac as the major Phase II metabolite via direct conjugation . Direct conjugation of naproxen and ibuprofen with glutamic acid and glutamine was also observed in Arabidopsis thaliana plants . The metabolism of acetaminophen has also been studied in multiple plant systems, including horseradish hairy root cultures and Indian mustard . In these studies, direct glucuronisation, glucosidation, and sulfation were observed along with the formation of a reactive metabolite N-acetyl-pbenzoquinoneimine . Taken together these studies have highlighted the ability of plants to uptake and transform NSAIDs. Several classes of psychiatric pharmaceuticals have been detected in TWW and bio-solids including antidepressants, mood stabilizers, and antianxiety agents . Of these compounds, carbamazepine has been likely considered in probably the most in the agroenvironment due to its stability during wastewater treatment and in the environment . In hydroponic systems, carbamazepine has been shown to accumulate in both roots and shoots of multiple plant species, including lettuce, spinach, cucumber, and peppers . Cucumber was found to readily translocate carbamazepine when cultivated in hydroponic systems . However, a high rate of translocation was not observed in cabbage plants cultivated in hydroponic systems . In greenhouse studies, carbamazepine was reported to be taken up by cucumbers and ryegrass grown in soils irrigated with TWW and urine . In addition, Shenker et al., reported that uptake into cucumbers was negatively correlated with soil organic matter content. In fields irrigated with TWW, trace levels of carbamazepine was found to accumulate in different parts of various vegetables . Carbamazepine was also reported to transfer to humans after consumption of contaminated vegetables . The metabolism of carbamazepine in plants has also been investigated . In carrot cell cultures five phase I metabolites of carbamazepine were observed to form over 22 d . Further, 10,11-epoxycarbamazepine and 10,11-dihydroxycarbamazepine have been reported in carrots and sweet potatoes grown in fields irrigated with CEC-spiked TWW . Fluoxetine is an antidepressant prescribed for both human and animal consumption ,blackberry container resulting in fluoxetine being commonly detected in environmental samples .

In hydroponic cultivations fluoxetine was taken up by cauliflower and accumulated in the stems and leaves . In a greenhouse study exploring plant uptake of fluoxetine from soils irrigated with TWW and amended with bio-solids fluoxetine accumulated in the roots , but, it was not translocated to the leaves . In addition, fluoxetine displayed an opposite uptake pattern to that for carbamazepine, and showed a greater accumulation in plants grown in bio-solid-amended soils as opposed to soil irrigated with TWW . Benzodiazepines, are one of the most prescribed classes of pharmaceuticals . Of these, diazepam is among the most commonly detected pharmaceuticals in TWW, with concentration ranging from ng L-1 to low µg L-1 . Benzodiazepines have been shown to be taken up and accumulate in tissues of plants grown in treated hydroponic solutions or soils . In hydroponic solutions, diazepam has been observed to accumulate in both the leaves and roots of lettuce, spinach, cucumber, and pepper with BCF of 10-100 ]. Further, in a greenhouse study exploring the uptake of seven benzodiazepines , both silverbeets and radish crops took up and accumulated all seven benzodiazepines from the treated-soil . Oxazepam was found to have the highest accumulation in both plants, with concentrations up to 14.2 µg g-1 in silverbeets and 5 µg g-1 in radishes . However, the fate of these pharmaceuticals in the agro-environment is still relatively unexplored, even though their physicochemical properties indicate a high potential for uptake by plants .A multitude of antimicrobials and preservatives are used in health and grooming products, collectively known as personal care products . Personal care products have garnered increased scientific attention due to their presence in surface waters and concerns that some of these antimicrobials and preservatives may be endocrine disruptors . Of these, triclocarban and triclosan have been amongst the best studied compounds in the terrestrial environment due to their ubiquitous occurrence in bio-solids and relative stability in soils after bio-solid application . Triclocarban and triclosan have been reported to be taken up by several crop species from hydroponic solutions. For example, after exposure to an aqueous solution mixture of triclocarban and triclosan 11 different food crops, cucumber, tomato, cabbage, okra , pepper , potato , beet, onion , broccoli, celery , and asparagus , were capable of taking up both compounds. However, translocation from roots to the aerial tissue was ≤1.9% for triclocarban and ≤ 3.7% for triclosan after 1 month of exposure . Similarly, Wu et al. found triclocarban and triclosan to have a translocation factor < 0.01 in four vegetables cultivated in a hydroponic solution with two initial exposure concentrations . In a greenhouse study, triclocarban and triclosan were taken up in radish, carrot, and soybeans from bio-solid-amended soils and, the greatest concentration was observed in the carrot root after 45 d of treatment and decreased thereafter .

However, in a three-year field study in which soils were amended with bio-solids in accordance with Ontario providence agricultural practices, the concentration of triclosan and triclocarban in the plant tissues was relatively steady and low . Plants have also been shown to metabolize triclosan, forming 33 metabolites in horseradish cell cultures with the majority being phase II conjugates . Further, one transformation product of the triclosan, methyl-triclosan, has been widely detected in environmental samples and is known to have greater toxicity than the parent compound . Parabens are common preservatives used in cosmetics, and among the most commonly detected CECs in TWW and bio-solid. Parabens are of concern due to their endocrine disrupting potential . Parabens have been widely detected in surface waters and sediments . However, knowledge of their behavior, uptake, and transformation in terrestrial systems is comparatively limited. Methyl paraben was unstable in soil after application of bio-solids, with the maximum concentration of 14.1 µg kg-1 reached after 5 h and decreasing to < 1 µg kg-1 after 35 d . In a bio-solid amended field, methyl paraben was the lone paraben detected in the bio-solids but was not quantifiable in tomatoes, sweet corn, carrot and potatoes . The above studies highlight the potential for CECs to enter the terrestrial environment, accumulate in plant tissues, and undergo transformations in plants. However, the wide variations in plant uptake and translocation rates under different soil and environmental conditions are currently not well understood and warrant further investigation. Further, it must be noted that the majority of currently published studies have focused on many of the same 20 or so CECs and explored their uptake in mostly the same plant species . There are over 1500 pharmaceutical compounds, alone, currently in circulation . Further, many of the current models have been shown to overestimate the concentration of CECs in plant tissues . In addition, no models have been able to take into account plant metabolism when determining the concentration and risk of CECs in terrestrial plants. More research is needed on a wider swath of CECs with different physicochemical properties in a wider range of plants to improve risk assessment. Transformation of CECs in the environment, including through plant metabolism also needs to be further investigated to better understand their fate and risks in the terrestrial environment. Antibiotic exposure in plants has been widely studied due to previously observed phenotypic toxicity. Several studies showed decreases in root length and changes in shoot development of various plants exposed to several different classes of antibiotics including sulfamides, fluoroquinolones, and penicillins .

Most of these studies were conducted at antibiotic concentrations greater than those of environmental relevance and/or utilized artificial or hydroponic growth media. For instance, shoot and root growth of pinto beans grown in a nutrient solution spiked with two antibiotics, chlortetracycline and oxytetracycline, significantly decreased in a dose-dependent manner . Enrofloxacin,planting blueberries in a pot a fluoroquinolone, induced hormetic and toxic effects on post-germination growth in lettuce, cucumber, radish and barley plants at concentrations ranging from 0.005 to 50 mg L-1 in laboratory conditions . Seed germination has also been studied as a potential biological end-point to assess toxicity to antibiotic exposure . The exposure effects on seed germination vary considerably by plant species and exposure chemical. In filter paper tests, sweet oat , rice and cucumber seeds were negatively impacted when the seeds were exposed to aqueous solutions of increasing concentrations of six antibiotics, i.e., chlortetracycline, tetracycline, tylosin, sulfamethoxazole, sulfamethazine, and trimethoprim . The EC10 and EC50 for seed germination were, however, significantly different depending on the antibiotic and the plant species. Rice seeds exposed to sulfamethoxazole were the most sensitive with an EC10 of 0.1 mg L-1 but tylosin had an EC10 > 500 mg L.-1 On the other hand, cucumber seeds exposed to sulfamethoxazole had an EC10 > 300 mg L-1 but an EC10 of 0.17 mg L-1 for chlortetracycline . Exposure to antibiotics can also change plant nutrient and chemical compositions. For example, irrigation with water spiked with sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim increased production in carbohydrate and soluble solid contents in tomatoes as compared to the plants irrigated with untreated water . The mechanisms driving the phytotoxicity of antibiotics have also been explored. Antibiotics can be directly toxic to or indirectly affect plants. Indirect adverse effects can arise from antibiotic exposure that detrimentally affects mycorrhizal fungi, a vital plant-microbe interaction . Direct toxicity can result when antibiotics interfere with plant hormones or chemical synthesis pathways, or damage chloroplasts, etc. For example, sulfamethoxazole was shown to directly disrupt the folate synthesis pathway in plants by blocking the action of dihydropteroate synthase . Tetracyclines was shown to interrupt mitochondrial proteostasis and damage plant chloroplasts . Interactions with plant hormones may also play a role in the observed phenotypic phytotoxicity. Erythromycin and tetracycline can promote the production of abscisic acid in plants . Abscisic acid, a stress hormone, is crucial for plant responses to drought, salinity, heavy metals, among other stressors , but antibiotic-induced production of this hormone can cause premature leaf and fruit detachment and inhibit seed germination. Plants, depending upon species, can also detoxify antibiotics through reactions with phase II metabolic enzymes . However, studies so far have shown significant variations among plant species. For example, the antibiotic chlortetracycline was detoxified by glutathione conjugation via glutathione-Stransferase in maize , but glutathione-S-transferase did not efficiently catalyze the conjugation in pinto beans . These detoxification reactions, likely produce a series of conjugated metabolites that have yet to be characterized. Understanding the extent of such conjugation is crucial for estimating the total antibiotic uptake, accumulation, and translocation of antibiotics in plants as the formation of conjugates may mask the total concentration, even though some of these conjugates may retain biological activity . Several widely used NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen, acetaminophen, and diclofenac are amongst the most studied pharmaceuticals in the environment. Studies have shown that NSAIDs can induce toxicity to plants . Phytotoxicity, however, is often plant species and NSAID specific. For example, ibuprofen has been shown to inhibited root elongation in Sorghum bicolor at high concentrations, with EC50 of 232.64 mg L-1 . However, in seed germination tests exposure to a hydroponic solution containing 1 mg L-1 ibuprofen, along with other fenamic acid class NSAIDs, increased the length of the primary root in lettuce but had no effect on radish . In the same study, diclofenac was observed to decrease the root-to-shoot ratio in radish seedlings cultivated in a sand/spiked-nutrient solution , but did not significantly affect the seed germination. However, protein content was not affected in maize cultivated in soils irrigated twice with different concentrations of acetaminophen but grain yields and seed germination were negatively impacted in a dose dependent-manner . Plants can metabolize and detoxify NSAIDs. For example, plants were found to detoxify acetaminophen by conjugation with glutathione followed by conversion to cysteine and acetylcysteine conjugates . Similarly, diclofenac was found to be converted to glucose conjugates in barley and horseradish and glutamic acid conjugates in Arabidopsis thaliana . Arabidopsis thaliana cell cultures can detoxify ibuprofen via conjugation with sugars and amino acids .As mentioned above, pharmaceuticals used to treat psychiatric disorders are another group of frequently detected pharmaceuticals in environmental samples, particularly the anticonvulsant carbamazepine .