Ababda nomads still harvest suitable branches from these plants . Branches of the toothbrush plant are cut into pieces about 15 cm long and made into a brush at one end. Salvadora persica often remain bushy as a result of this exploitation. Some antispasmodic properties of this plant have been proven, for which reason extracts are also recom mended for certain diseases . In 1988, a commercial toothpaste containing Salvadora was even put on the market in Saudi Arabia . Branches of the plant are still offered for sale in markets in the Middle East. Another plant that is still used for oral hygiene in this area, and also still available in markets, is toothpick ammi . Complete umbels are collected from this plant. The rays thicken after flowering and can be used as toothpicks. In Egypt, this plant has been recorded from the Nile Valley and the Mediterranean region but has become an endangered species in this country by now. Potential dye plants that grow in the immediate surroundings of Berenike are Arnebia hispidissima, Chrozophora tinctoria, and Indigofera articulata. The thickened root of A. hispidissima is a source of yellow dye. Crushed leaves of C. tinctoria can be used to give the skin a purple tone. Fermented leaves of indigo species can be used as a source of blue dye. When synthetic indigo became available in 1897, the production of natural indigo dropped dramatically . According to Drar , by the beginning of the twentieth century, the extensive cultivation of indigo was confined to the Nile Valley and the Dakhla oasis. Local Ababda nomads do not use either of these plants today. Polycarpaea repens and Citrullus colocynthis are used for treating wounds,blueberry container size in particular those of camels. Leaves from P. repens are either crushed on the skin or first made into ash .

A more-detailed description of the processing of tar from the seeds of C. colocynthis follows in the “Local Food Production” section. Echium rauwolfi i is widely valued in Yemen for its medical properties, where it is used as a diuretic, tranquilizer, and aphrodisiac .For the interpretation of the sub-fossil record of cultivated plants from Berenike and Shenshef, it is important to explore the present-day practices of local food production in the Eastern Desert. Water availability and labor can be considered as the main limiting factors. Nevertheless, it may be assumed that the inhabitants of Berenike and Shenshef may also have practiced the small-scale examples that can be encountered today. Although the part of Egypt that is suitable for agricultural production is relatively small, being confined to the Nile Valley, the Nile Delta, and the oases in the Western Desert, it still is capable of producing very high yields. Before the construction of the Aswan High Dam, the Nile Valley and the Delta owed their fertility to the yearly flooding of the Nile. Because sufficient rainfall is only available in the Mediterranean coastal area, irrigation is necessary elsewhere. But even in far less suitable environments, such as the Eastern Desert, agricultural practices can be observed almost everywhere where people have settled. This is not only true for cities such as Quseir, but also for small villages of settled Ababdas and restaurants along desert roads. In order of importance, we can distinguish kitchen gardens, cultivated trees, and fields.Both permanent and semipermanent settlements in the Eastern Desert are characterized by the presence of small kitchen gardens. The cultivation of vegetables and herbs with a short life cycle enables their cultivation even in temporarily occupied settlements. In most instances the gardens are private domains and of limited size. Both the presence of the kitchen gardens and their size are mainly determined by the amount of water that is available. Kitchen gardens that were seen in the Eastern Desert have a size of about 4 to 20 m2 . A necessary condition for the cultivation of crop plants in these kitchen gardens is the availability of water and minerals. Due to their fixed location, manuring might be necessary if gardens are used intensively.

According to the sheikh of Arab Saleh, one of the few owners of a kitchen garden in this settlement, their gardens are not fertilized. He referred to the former situation in the Nile Valley , where only additional camel dung was used as a natural fertilizer. Applying this traditional and natural manure, vegetables were produced with a good taste. Nowadays artificial manure has to be brought onto the land as the Nile flooding is blocked. Much organic waste is present in the water used for irrigation and on the fields proper, which in their turn affects people’s health. Despite their relatively small size, kitchen gar dens produce quite a variety of crops. Although the productivity is limited, the yield may be self-supporting if the family is not too big. If water is available throughout the year, kitchen gardens can produce several yields a year. Kitchen plants are mostly grown in a protected area near the house, although occasionally it was also seen that plants such as karkadeih and basil were cultivated in a flower box. The gardens are surrounded by walls or fences to prevent the browsing of domestic animals such as sheep and goats, which are a serious threat to a good harvest. Fences are constructed from spiny branches, such as those from twisted acacia , wire netting, wood, or sheet iron. It is conceivable that in Roman times spiny branches were used especially for this purpose. When fenced off, kitchen gardens may be completely hidden from view. I once stayed for a couple of days at the accommodation of the Geological Survey in Shelateen and only discovered the small kitchen garden producing faba beans by accident after two days.In a temporary settlement of workmen from an asphalt company, some 30 km north of Berenike, a larger kitchen garden was observed, which w a s a c o m m u n a l property. In this case, the kitchen garden was unfenced because no domestic animals were present. Only a scarecrow was erected for protection . Most garden plants are characterized by their edibility. The following species have been recorded in kitchen gardens in the Eastern Desert: basil , sunflower , caper bush , possibly cumin , lavender , fennel , Johnson grass , faba bean , morning glories , karkadeih , cress , coriander , tomato , potato , onions , garden rocket , watermelon , cucumber , and courgette .

Hobbs also mentions Malta jute , snake melon , okra , chickpea , white lupin , lentil , and tobacco . The cultivation of tobacco is forbidden in Egypt today as it is related with the period in which Nasser was in power, during which close relations with the former Soviet Union were maintained. Vegetables and herbs are sown in early spring to profit from the winter rains and to avoid high temperatures during the growing season. But additional watering is always necessary. This might be done with a watering can or, more advanced, with the aid of small gutters that transect the garden and are regularly filled with water. Wastewater may be used for this purpose, but special water is also bought. That the presence of kitchen gardens is directly determined by the availability of water is clearly illustrated in Quseir, where kitchen gardens are in abundance and owners are assured of a steady supply of cheap water. This water originates from the Red Sea and is desalinated in a special factory. This amount of water is sufficient for a kitchen garden of approximately 12 to 15 m2 . In Arab Saleh, an Ababda village some 15 km northwest of Berenike, water has become a scarce item and has led to the reduction of kitchen gardens in this area. Contrary to Quseir,growing raspberries in container the water used for human consumption and for irrigation originates from the same source. A special type of irrigation is obtained by diverting flood waters to particular depressions, which are subsequently used for farming purposes. The practice of this kind of runoff or flood water farming, which is restricted to years with heavy winter rains, is observed for the Arab bedouins in the northern part of the Eastern Desert and the Sinai .Only a minority of these trees is indigenous to the Eastern Desert: twisted acacia, nabq, and date palm. Some others originate from the Nile Valley or are cultivated there from classical times onward: Nile acacia, fig, henna tree and castor-oil plant. All the others trees can be considered as exotic species. A good example is the Eucalyptus tree, which originates from Australia and has a widespread distribution today throughout the Mediterranean region, where it can be found near settlements and also in more natural environments. As most people like to cultivate exotic species in their gardens, the planting of foreign trees by desert dwellers may therefore not be surprising. The Eucalyptus tree in Arab Saleh, for example, was grown from a young sprout that originated from the Nile Valley. The large proportion of exotic trees in Cairo also illustrates people’s preference for non-indigenous plants . Such non-desert trees, however, need special attention and are restricted to settlements only. But desert trees that are cultivated near shelters may also need supplementary watering. Schweinfurth states that a small date-palm grove near Quseir was irrigated with brackish water obtained from Wadi Ambagi. The author witnessed in Marsa Alam, located between Quseir and Berenike, a full-grown Balanites aegyptiaca that was watered with wastewater via a gully. Trees that are adapted to desert conditions may survive when settlements become abandoned or may even escape from cultivation through seed dispersion. According to Schweinfurth such a palm grove is present in the Wadi Gimal estuary, 93 km north of Berenike, and consists of date palms and doam palms . Today, these palm trees are not cultivated anymore: the old leaves are still attached to the stem. Hobbs states that nabq trees in the Ma’aza territory are regarded by the nomads as “antiquities,” which were cultivated by the Romans. Once full-grown, trees may serve as shade plants. They also may be exploited for useful products, which is true for almost every species enumerated above. Dead branches can be used as firewood, and most of the cultivated trees are valued for their edible fruits. Others, such as the henna tree and the Nile acacia , produce other useful products. The powdered leaves of the henna tree can be used as a cosmetic dye and is applied to the hands and feet of women in a characteristic pattern. Fruits of the Nile acacia are used for tanning. Both the henna tree and the Nile acacia are present in gardens of Quseir, and it is likely that leaves and ripe pods are harvested for personal use or sold in markets. Even in Cairo’s spice markets, these products are offered for sale. The Ababdas from Arab Saleh do not cultivate these trees, despite their frequent use of henna and acacia fruits. Both products are obtained from the markets in Shelateen, approximately 90 km to the south.At several locations the author has witnessed that cereal cultivation in the Eastern Desert is possible. A fairly large wheat field next to an orchard has been seen in Wadi el-Matuli, along the former caravan track between Berenike and Koptos , some 17 km from the Nile Valley. A barley field of only 4 m2 was seen near a frontier station about 10 km north of Quseir . Both these fields were irrigated. An example of rain-fed farming was found about 1.5 km south of Arab Saleh, near Berenike, where sorghum was occasionally cultivated on a small scale. A necessary condition for sorghum cultivation in this area is sufficient rainfall during the winter period, with most rain falling in November. The field near Arab Saleh measures a couple of hectares and had been sown with sorghum in 1995 and in 1997 after heavy winter rains. Suitable locations for such rain-fed agriculture are shallow depressions in which rainwater is concentrated.